Ehsan Abbasi and Eric Dwyer

CITE (APA Style): Abbasi, E. & Dwyer, E. (2024). The Efficacy of Commercial Computer Games as Vocabulary Learning Tools for EFL Students: An Empirical Investigation. Sunshine State TESOL Journal, 16(3), 24-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5100185

ABSTRACT

The goal of the present study is to investigate how a commercial computer game (CCG) affects the productive and receptive vocabulary knowledge of EFL learners when they are not in a formal educational setting. More specifically, we investigated how CCGs assist learners in recognizing and producing English vocabulary over time (i.e., whether they only recognize the words when directly confronted with them or use them spontaneously). The investigation took place in an EFL context, and a sample of convenience of male students from a classroom at a private language institution was selected by the researchers. According to the results of statistical analyses, players’ receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge significantly increased after playing the game. Additionally, it was evident that the learned words were retained to a high degree.
Keywords: Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), Commercial Computer Game, EFL Learners, Game-Enhanced Language Learning, Vocabulary Acquisition, Digital Game-Based Vocabulary Learning (DGVL), learning strategies

Introduction

As a by-product of Computer-assisted language learning (CALL), a significant number of studies have lately concentrated on the advantages of digital games in second language learning (See, for example, Butler, 2015; Chen & Hsu, 2020; Lai & Chen, 2023). Video games are now a common part of our everyday lives. We might play them ourselves, our kids may be affected by them, or there is a possibility that some people around us would spend a lot of time on these games. Regardless of how we feel about video games, it is clear that millions of people play them for hundreds of hours every year, and efforts to lessen their dominance would be ineffective. If computer games have immediate and pervasive impacts on children’s spare time, why wouldn’t we use them as a tool to maximize learning opportunities as one of the macrostrategies that stands out in Kumaravadivelu’s (2006) framework. Additionally, as a microstrategy, teachers may be able to improve their students’ chances of acquiring a second or foreign language in unique way that is tailored to their already established mindset (Pontier & Abbasi, 2024) by incorporating computer games as potential sources of language.
Although learning a new language seems advantageous, doing so involves much more than just becoming familiar with its grammar and sound system. There are more aspects to be covered, and vocabulary proficiency is one of the most difficult requirements that has been considered to be essential to communicative competence (Xia, 2010). Likewise, According to Nation (2001), “vocabulary knowledge is one of the most important aspects of language proficiency” (p. 9). The ability to use and understand a wide range of vocabulary is also important for achieving academic success (Masrai et al., 2021). Therefore, ESL instructors should prioritize vocabulary instruction and provide learners with ample opportunities to engage with new words in meaningful contexts.
Accordingly, the purpose of this investigation is to explore how CCGs affect pre-intermediate English language learners’ receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge out of school.

Significance of the Study

Empirical evidence regarding the efficacy of using commercial computer games in TESOL courses may contribute to the area of second language teaching and learning. Additionally, the present project seeks to establish a student-centered opportunity for vocabulary acquisition outside of the classroom, thereby improving the standard of language learning programs while saving money and time. More specifically, this project attempts to enhance the understanding of computer games as an opportunity to learn.
The results may also support Vygotsky’s (1978) theory that all kinds of artifacts, not only human ones, can serve as mediational aids, scaffolding learners and assisting them in moving through their zone of proximal development (ZPD). Krashen’s (1981) input hypothesis could also be considered, given that computer games can offer understandable but slightly challenging input (i + l).In the same way, Nieto (2007) asserted that mediation through technology—specifically a computer—as a means of practice in L2 learning is of great importance. Technology-mediated learning settings can produce dynamic, entertaining lessons that promote language development and give students different types of feedback.

Literature Review

Theoretical and experimental research that is in line with the study is presented in this part. Before reviewing the pertinent theoretical concerns with computer-assisted language learning (CALL), the dichotomy between educational and commercial games and their use in learning are first addressed. Then a section devoted largely to studies that are relevant to language learning, particularly vocabulary development and the use of computer games in this field. Lastly, the gap in the literature is discussed, along with the importance of this study’s attempt to fill it.

Commercial versus Educational Games

Commercial computer games (CCGs) and non-commercial (educational) games are two distinct categories that can be used to differentiate computer games. While CCGs are typically designed and marketed for entertainment purposes (Mäyrä, 2008), educational games are designed for education or training, such as teaching history, science, or other subject matters (Kebritchi et al., 2010). Educational games are computer-generated environments that are specifically designed to convey learning-related information in an engaging and interactive manner (Hooshyar et al., 2023). On the other hand, commercial computer games—also known as commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games—though comparable to educational games, are products of the entertainment industry. Davis and Whittinghill (2011) differentiate them in that commercial computer games typically provide players with newly introduced information implicitly rather than explicitly. While commercial games may offer some educational benefits, the pedagogical value of educational games has received greater attention from research.
The two varieties of games aim to adhere to the situated learning principle, which refers to an approach that seeks to transfer what might be learned in the classroom to actual scenes, and place students in particular situations (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Meihami, 2023), in order to create an authentic learning environment (Hwang & Wang, 2016). Bakar et al. (2006) examined the benefits and drawbacks of commercial computer games in an educational setting and found that youngsters chose CCGs over educational games. In coming to this conclusion, they stated that CCGs (i) have a positive impact on motivation; (ii) enhance cognitive skills; (iii) improve teamwork; (iv) focus students’ attention on the lesson; (v) boost their ability to use computer accessories; and (vi) are more entertaining and more enjoyable. However, they cautioned that these games might not be easily transferred to a classroom setting, due to being too distractive and hindering students’ focus and concentration on academic objectives. They concluded that there are only two options: to incorporate commercial games directly into the curriculum or at least incorporate educational games that have CCG-like characteristics. As expected, it is difficult to control every factor that influences learning, which calls into question the validity of these results (Reinders, 2017).

Advantages and Drawbacks of Computer Games in Learning

A number of studies have been published (see, for example, Chowdhury et al., 2024; Mayer, 2019; Ullah, 2022) that demonstrate how computer games may be used for education. Research conducted by Junttila et al. (2022), found that the performance of Finnish children engaged in digital game-based learning was much higher than that of the children who employed traditional learning techniques. Hung et al. (2014) offered more evidence for this distinction by incorporating computer games into mathematics instruction and reporting comparable results, specifically enhanced accomplishment rates. Through a systematic review of 43 papers from 2008 to 2019, Hussein et al. (2022) identified positive learning outcomes using digital game-based learning in K–12 math education but emphasized the necessity for more research to validate this effectiveness in specific areas.
In general, fewer negative effects of computer games on learning are recorded in comparison to their beneficial qualities.

Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in TESOL

Scholars (see, for example, Miller, 2022) have discussed the advantages of CALL in learning a foreign language. These include (i) improved student-teacher and student-student collaboration; (ii) enhanced learning environments and activities; (iii) optimized linguistic and cultural communication of meaning; and (iv) raised learning outcomes, to name a few. In a thorough analysis that included forty papers, Regina and Anitha Devi (2022) found that using computers is a common and successful strategy for English language learners to acquire L2 vocabulary. Similarly, Taghizadeh and Ejtehadi’s (2023) research discussed how 100 pre-service teachers and 7 teacher educators had a positive attitude towards implementing online interaction tools in English language classrooms. In a similar vein, Yip and Kwan (2006) had 100 participants play an online vocabulary game to enhance their vocabulary acquisition. They concluded that the examinees utilizing this sort of computer-assisted vocabulary learning were able to recall more words for a longer length of time than those who did not.

Computer Games and Second/Foreign language Learning

Turning to millions of young people who play digital games using a second or foreign language, scholars became eager to learn about the effects of these games on second/foreign language teaching and learning. According to Hwang and Wang (2016), computer games can be beneficial for second language learning when combined with “cloze item guidance.” They demonstarte that such games support two types of learning: “single loop situated” learning, where students repeatedly try to deal with the same set of learning tasks, and “double-loop situated” learning, where students try to deal with the same learning tasks after reviewing relevant materials and adjusting their learning strategies (p. 188).Hwang and Wang claimed that including these games into the classroom may improve language acquisition.
Similarly, Berns et al. (2013) utilized a 3D simulation game to measure the correlation between digital game use and second language learning enhancement. Their findings showed improvement in vocabulary acquisition and listening abilities as well as other skills. In the same vein, Franciosi (2017) found significant improvements in the L2 writing skills of Japanese first- and second-year college students using a computer game-based learning approach.
Moreover, computer game features compatible with communicative language teaching (CLT) principles were listed by Xia (2010). Among these features were (i) learner-centeredness; (ii) authentic language use; (iii) communicative competence practice; (iv) similarity to daily life; (iv) adoption of various vocabulary teaching techniques; (v) cooperation; (vi) role-playing; (vii) lack of punishment for learning errors; and (viii) contextualized teaching.

Computer Games and Vocabulary Acquisition

The acquisition of vocabulary has been the subject of numerous studies in the field of additional language acquisition. One of the most significant and challenging aspects of learning or teaching a language is developing an adequate vocabulary (Read, 2001). Nation (1999) clarified what is meant by having a strong command of vocabulary by claiming that a lack of sufficient vocabulary knowledge is the primary cause of demotivation in language learning. In 2001, Nation further added to his initial argument by asserting that lexical depth is made up of a variety of related properties, such as understanding of morphology, meaning, collocation, connotation, association, and so on. It is important to distinguish between each feature’s receptive and productive characteristics because the former signifies passive knowledge and the latter, active acquaintance (Baker & Wright, 2021; see also Pan, 2023). Relevantly, Kirmizi and Komec (2019), claimed that language learners would initially prioritize the development of their receptive abilities.
Given how crucial it is to know enough words for communication, vocabulary acquisition is a key feature of language learning programs that could be improved by utilizing suitable computer games (Sundqvist & Wikstrom, 2015). They are natural sources of input that facilitate learning a second language, but they should be handled carefully when being used in an educational context.
Zou et al. (2021) did an in-depth review of 21 studies related to digital game-based vocabulary learning (DGVL), with 11 focusing on the impact of these games on short- and long-term learning. It’s interesting to note that the eleven studies confirmed a positive impact of DGVL. In a similar investigation, Vnucko and Klimova (2023) attempted to analyze the body of literature on the same approach, covering 13 papers from 2018 to 2022. Their major conclusion was that DGVL produced favorable feelings in learners, thus improving their retention skills.
Along the same lines, a study was conducted by Chen and Hsu (2020) on sixty-six participants. They examined the impact of the game called “Playing History” on facilitating English vocabulary acquisition in a Chinese setting. Consequently, they discovered that including a computer game in a learning setting led to positive results.
Moreover, Lai and Chen (2023) attempted to include virtual reality (VR) technology alongside personal computers (PC) in a game-based vocabulary learning context. Using a mixed-method approach, researchers collected both quantitative and qualitative data from 30 high school students in China and the results supported the notion that English vocabulary acquisition was improved through utilizing this technology. A further effort was made to teach English words using video games, and the results were remarkably successful (Yip & Kwan, 2006). The 100 engineering freshmen who took part in this study indicated that playing a computer game—in this case, an online game—made memorizing a list of new words on the same topic less difficult. They also conducted a focus group interview that addressed the advantages and disadvantages of learning vocabulary using online games and found that “Games that demand sophisticated game skills or a timely response might distract from learning,” (p. 245) which is very similar to the findings of the earlier investigations. According to Ayres & Sweller (2005), this phenomenon is known as the “split-attention effect” and occurs “when learners are required to split their attention and integrate several sources of physically or temporally disparate information, where each source of information is essential for understanding the material” (p. 206). Possibly due to this split-attention, some scholars disagree about the benefits of computer games for acquiring a second or foreign language (See, for example, Huang & Huang, 2015).

Gaps in the Literature

Researchers have been willing to investigate the effects of computer games on the teaching and learning of second or foreign languages, with some research reporting favorable outcomes (e.g., Acquah & Katz, 2020; Dehghanzadeh et al. 2021) and others reporting negative ones (See, for example, Huang & Huang, 2015). Moreover, many studies in the field of second/foreign language acquisition have focused on the significance of vocabulary learning (e.g., Nation, 1999, 2001; Read, 2001), and it is demonstrated that well-designed computer games could improve vocabulary acquisition (Lee, 2023; Soyoof et al., 2024). However, a thorough investigation of the impact of commercial computer games on the two categories of vocabulary knowledge (receptive and productive) is still lacking. Furthermore, the power of retention over time has received absolutely no substantial attention in CCG studies.

The Objective of the Study and the Research Question

This study intends to evaluate the effects of commercial computer games on the recognition and production of words in teenage male Iranian students who play outside of school, as well as on short-and long-term vocabulary retention. The following questions guided the study:
1- How do students’ experiences with commercial computer games contribute to their receptive knowledge of English vocabulary in the short run?
2- What long-term effects do students’ exposure to commercial computer games have on their receptive knowledge of English vocabulary?
3- To what extent do students’ experience with commercial computer games aid in the productive knowledge of English vocabulary in the short term?
4- How much of an impact do students’ interactions with commercial computer games have on their long-term productive vocabulary acquisition?

Method

Context

The investigation was carried out in a language institution for Iranian EFL learners. According to these institutions’ schedules, students receive 180–270 minutes of instruction every week for a semester. The learning activities in these programs don’t vary significantly because they are frequently conducted in teacher-centered classrooms.

Participants

The study made use of a convenient sample of 20 male students who were enrolled in a class at a private institution in Shiraz, Iran. Due to our aim of maximizing control over the ways by which the target words were acquired, it became challenging to include participants beyond the students from a single, whole class in which the first author was the instructor. According to the classification based on a valid placement test and the textbooks the students studied, the participants demonstrated a pre-intermediate level of language proficiency. The participants’ ages ranged from 13 to 19.

The Commercial Game

In this study, SporeTM was the target CCG. According to Prensky’s (2001) classification, it was a life simulation, role-playing, and partially strategy game. Additionally, it was chosen for the following reasons: First, while displaying excellent sound effects and good graphics design that made the game eye-catching, the intended commercial game was deemed simple and straightforward, which, according to Yip and Kwan (2006), may help prevent gamers from being distracted from learning. Second, it blurred the line between reality and fantasy so that all learners— interested in fanciful imagination or scientific reasoning—could play without getting sidetracked from learning. Furthermore, as “the student motivation is the desire to communicate” (Xia, 2010, p. 17), several sections of SporeTM were valuable in fostering communication. Also, regarding the playing ability, the players of SporeTM did not require extraordinary skill in playing computer games (i.e., working with the mouse, keyboard, or joystick). Moreover, the game mostly depicted the natural flow of life, and lacked excessive violence, making it consistent with ethical concerns about content appropriateness. The final and most crucial aspect of SporeTM was its inclusion of English scenarios and instructions as a source of the authentic English language (guides), allowing the user to move through the game without difficulty (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

Examples of Spore™ English Scenarios and Instructions

These directives and other verbal communications, such as chat boxes (like those seen in Figure 2), might be utilized to influence vocabulary learning.

Figure 2

Vocabulary Size, Recognition, and Production Tests

There were three vocabulary tests used. One of them was the Vocab Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007a), a diagnostic recognition tool designed to assess “second language learners’ written receptive vocabulary size in English” (Nation, 2012, p.1). The researcher of this study developed the other two vocabulary tests utilizing the words employed in the game. An overview of the tests used in this investigation is presented in Table 1 and the order in which they are used will be described in the data collection procedures section.

Table 1
Key Attributes of the Tests Employed in this Study

Details	Developer	Goal	Assessment usage	Name
100 multiple-choice items	Nation and Beglar	To assess learners’ vocabulary size in English	Diagnosis	Vocab Size test
44 multiple-choice items	The researcher of this study	To assess learners’ passive vocabulary knowledge in English	Pre/post/delayed post-test	Recognition test
44 fill-in-the-blank items	The researcher of this study	To assess learners’ active vocabulary knowledge in English	Pre/post/delayed post-test	Production test

In the recognition test, the students’ receptive (passive) vocabulary knowledge of the target words was assessed through the use of multiple-choice questions, and in the production test, their productive (active) vocabulary knowledge was evaluated via fill-in-the-blank items. According to Nation (2001), receptive knowledge—which is applied in listening and reading— means recognizing a word’s meaning based on its form, and by multiple-choice tests, this knowledge could be measured. Likewise, he added that productive knowledge—which is employed in speaking and writing—suggests recalling from the meaning to the word form, and by open-ended or fill-in-the-blank items, this knowledge could be assessed. There were 44 questions on each of the production and recognition tests. A professional in the field of language teaching and testing validated the content validity of the tests, and the reliability of the assessments was measured after a pilot test and using the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient (=.83 for the recognition test and =.84 for the production test).
To get to the appropriate level of the target words for the creation of recognition and production tests and cover all the words that were included in the game’s different scenarios, Spore™ was played by a gamer several times and videotaped each time. Then, a transcription of all the observed words was uploaded to the Complete Lexical Tutor website (Nation & Beglar, 2007b). Based on the participants’ vocabulary knowledge, as measured by the Vocab Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007a), and the identified levels of the transcribed words by the website, we disregarded words that fell below the participants’ current vocabulary knowledge. Furthermore, in order to lessen the possibility of learning the new words in ways other than by playing the game, the participants’ textbook was analyzed, with overlapping terms that might be learned through the repetition and emphasis of the book disregarded.

Data Collection Procedures

The following steps were taken for data collection:
⦁ Before starting the experiment, Nation’s Vocab Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007a) was administered. The results revealed that the participants were at K2 (2000-word families).
⦁ Recognition and production pre-tests were administered to the participants after the selection of the right vocabulary.
⦁ After the pretests, participants received the suggested CCG (SporeTM).
⦁ Participants were required to reach a designated stage in the game within three weeks while playing at home. They played purely for enjoyment; no mandated word-learning objective was placed upon them. A reward was also granted to encourage good collaboration.
⦁ Posttests were given following the three-week intervention. Except for how the questions were arranged, they were identical to the pretests.
⦁ Delayed posttests were given approximately four months later. They were also identical to the posttests, apart from how the questions were organized.

Results

Participants’ Vocabulary Size

To determine the size of the students’ vocabulary knowledge, a calculation took place, based on Nation and Beglar’s (2007a) Vocab Size Test. Results indicated that at the beginning of the study, the group’s vocabulary knowledge was at the 2000 (K2) word families level. Thus, only words from the 3000 (K3) word families level and above were kept for tests after the determination of the level of the game’s words according to the Complete Lexical Tutor website.
Recognition Tests (RQs 1 & 2)

Descriptive Statistics for Obtained Recognition Scores through Different Intervals*

Std. Deviation	Mean	N
6.31269	11.8750 0	20	Recognition pre-test
7.28354	20.8750 0	20	Recognition posttest
7.73628	23.8750 0	20	Recognition delayed posttest

* Full score = 44

Recognition tests were taken by 20 students. Participants’ mean score increased from 11.87 (SD = 6.31) in the pre-test to 20.87 (SD = 7.28) in the posttest. They received an average score of 23.87 (SD = 7.74) on the delayed posttest.
A one-way repeated measures analysis of variances was conducted to compare results on the receptive vocabulary knowledge measurements at various interim times (prior to, immediately after, and about four months following the intervention) to determine whether these differences were statistically significant. The researcher made an effort to regulate the participants’ vocabulary growth by preventing them from learning the target words through direct vocabulary instruction in the classroom. Findings indicated that the intervention had a significant impact, F(2, 30) = 67.18, p < .01. Following the discovery of the significant difference, pairwise comparisons were made between the recognition mean scores of the various phases. Results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Pairwise Comparisons between the Recognition Mean Scores in Different Intervals

Recognition delayed posttest	Recognition posttest	Recognition pre-test
-12.000*	-9.000*	__________	Recognition pre-test
-3.000	__________	9.000*	Recognition posttest
__________	3.000	12.000*	Recognition delayed posttest

* The mean difference is significant at the .01 level

Table 3 depicts the means for each category. Results revealed that the passage of time had a statistically significant influence, with numbers with asterisks indicating significant and highly effective progress.
Production Tests (RQs 3 & 4)
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Obtained Production Scores through Different Intervals*

Std. Deviation	Mean	N
2.58763	3.1875	20	Production pre-test
5.89915	10.5000	20	Production posttest
6.77219	10.4375	20	Production delayed posttest

* Full score = 44

Participants’ average scores varied from 3.19 (SD = 2.59) in the production pre-test to 10.5 (SD = 5.90) in the post-test. Their average score on the delayed posttest was 10.44 (SD = 6.78).
A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed to determine whether these differences were statistically significant at different interim periods (before, immediately after, and around four months after the intervention). Results show that there was a significant effect of the intervention, F(1.24, 18.58) = 38.36, p < .01. To compare the production mean scores of the various stages after realizing the significant difference, pairwise comparisons were done. Findings are shown in Table 5.

Table 5
Pairwise Comparisons between the Production Mean Scores in Different Intervals

Production delayed posttest	Production posttest	Production pre-test
-7.250*	-7.313*	__________	Production pre-test
.063	__________	7.313*	Production posttest
__________	-.063	7.250*	Production delayed posttest

* The mean difference is significant at the .01 level

The multivariate partial eta squared (.77) suggests a big effect size and Wilks’ Lambda =.23, F (2, 14) = 23.41, p < .01, indicates a significant effect for time. In other words, a meaningful impact was detected with a high effect size.
Ideally, a plot in Figure 3 would better depict the considerable increase in the pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test scores.

Figure 3
The Rate of Increase in Recognition and Production Test Scores for short and long-term courses

Discussion

The Short and Long-Term Effects on Vocabulary Knowledge
The repeated measures ANOVA analyses showed that the commercial computer game (SporeTM) significantly affected both types of vocabulary knowledge (receptive and productive). Even though the participants had never played SporeTM or a game of a comparable kind before the research, strong effect sizes (.87 and .77) were reported, confirming the usefulness of the computer game in vocabulary acquisition. This finding supports the claim made by Vnucko and Klimova (2023) that the use of computer games in educational environments improves language learning, particularly vocabulary learning. One underlying factor that confirms the growth of gamers’ vocabulary knowledge is the freedom the game allows players to exercise (Butler, 2017), as it affords players the choice of vocabulary to acquire (Nation, 2001). Discussing their preferences for which word(s) to focus on, in an informal conversation after the experiment, the participants’ responses confirmed the desire for freedom of choice. This discovery is in line with Butler’s (2017) classification of the words that children are more likely to pick up, such as terms that signify their favorite elements. As an illustration, referring to the game’s favorite elements, one of her research subjects, who was interested in fairy tales or unrealistic elements, stated that: “it would be fun to learn different kinds of English when we learn fairy tales from other countries” (p. 745).To put it differently, the growth of vocabulary knowledge may be linked to the efficiency of what Sundqvist and Wikstrom (2015) call incidental learning through computer games. By integrating these findings into the results of the present research, we are inclined to support Arnseth’s (2006) assertion that the educational value of computer games is not primarily found within them but rather in the conditions and activities that surround them.
The retention levels seen in this analysis are far higher than those seen by Naeimi and Foo (2015), which is another feature of the data. In that study, which concentrated on indirect as well as direct vocabulary acquisition techniques in an EFL context, they said, “The learners forget whatever vocabulary they have learned if they do not practice them for a long time” (p. 144). The delayed posttest and interview results showed that even though the test’s target words were not reviewed for 4 months, retention rates did not fall. This information also stands in stark contrast to some findings in the literature, which suggested that vocabulary knowledge expanded by digital games was either weakly or even negatively preserved (See, for example, Huang & Huang, 2015; Hung et al., 2015). The results of this study are also encouraging compared to Thornbury’s findings (2006), which indicated that certain principles are required for new information to be firmly established in long-term memory. While the purpose of this article is not to explain all the concepts, relevant concepts arose from a post-hoc examination of SporeTM: “repetition, retrieval, spacing, pacing, use, cognitive depth, imaging, mnemonics, motivation, attention” (Thornbury, 2006, p. 24). The performance of participants on the delayed posttests may be explained by the aforementioned criteria. However, the results led the researcher to speculate that the learners may have replayed the game or that the target words might have been introduced in other contexts (i.e., such as another English language program). Surprisingly, in the casual conversation I noted earlier, the participants claimed that they had not encountered the target words between the two intervals.
A closer examination of the gains from each test revealed two characteristics. First, participants performed better overall in the recognition tests compared to production ones, despite a small number of gamers progressing better in the production than the recognition tests. Unfortunately, the cause(s) behind this atypical behavior remains unknown, but overall, the improvements are clear and support the findings of Kirmizi and Komec (2019), who believed that receptive achievement is higher than its productive counterpart. Second, the mean scores (out of 44) were not particularly high. While the reason for this phenomenon is unknown, the split-attention effect (Ayres & Sweller, 2005), which is observed in game-based learning, may have played a role in the results. The participants’ various needs could also be a factor. Butler (2017) supported the possibility that different gains from computer games could be recorded due to the learners’ diverse needs. We would propose that, in addition to the previously indicated causes, one more methodological issue may have contributed to the unfavorable results: the participants were uninformed of the purpose of the study. In other words, they believed that playing was just for fun and not to learn new words. Perhaps in this situation, we might refer to Johnson et al. (2005) in that students’ vocabulary bank would have been increased further if the gamers realized the educational goal for playing.

Conclusions and implications

The instructional potential of commercial computer games (CCGs) was investigated using SporeTM. Our own teaching experience and working with students who spend a lot of time playing video games gave us an inspiration to employ this technique, as millions of people play them for hundreds of hours each year, which opened an opportunity to use CCGs as a TESOL learning tool.
Our investigation yielded notable findings: The recognition and production tests conducted at various intervals revealed that SporeTM had a favorable impact on participants’ word acquisition. Players also expressed their preference for certain game features over others (having the choice to select the vocabulary they wish to learn) and their focus on particular areas of the game more (favored elements that are more likely to promote learning). Moreover, the high degree of retention four months following the experiment adds support to the notion that CCGs can be effective in fostering long-lasting learning. On the other hand, since students were simply playing for enjoyment, their vocabulary improvement fell short of our expectations. In view of this, employing digital games with educational prompts might yield better outcomes in support of vocabulary acquisition and development.

Implications of the study

For those (in)directly involved in the educational application of commercial computer games, the study’s findings provide some recommendations. The use of multimedia resources for language instruction can potentially transform classrooms, allowing for the transition from traditional methods to more modern ones which best support learners’ development within their ZPD. Therefore, game-enhanced vocabulary learning encourages the development of useful vocabulary skills. The current work also suggests a novel approach to learning vocabulary for EFL students in an enjoyable manner, free of typical rote learning, which promotes autonomy and ensures retention.
Findings from the present study also imply that using CCGs in education can increase the variety of extracurricular activities outside of the classroom. With this model of language instruction, learners are given a rewarding, non-repetitive language learning task that facilitates situated language acquisition while also encouraging engagement and interaction.

Limitations of the study

Only twenty students from an English language learning class participated in the study, as it was crucial to account for the learners’ behavior. Thus, the conclusions have a restricted generalizability. Additionally, taking into account that the study included participants with intermediate proficiency levels; different proficiency levels may affect results diversely.

Suggestions for further research

Further studies akin to this one should be conducted with larger sample sizes. Moreover, adding control groups that learn the target words using a different vocabulary acquisition method (e.g., learning from a word list), and a comparison of the results may yield different findings. Research is also needed to ascertain the involvement of other factors such as gender, competitiveness among language learners, the size of vocabulary storage prior to the study, among others. Additionally, studies analyzing how a CCG would affect other language components (e.g. grammar) would be welcome. Furthermore, given that only the written vocabulary of the intended game was examined, future research looking at the associations of spoken words would be needed.

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